Thank you for your answers so far. My version of cryptsetup is 2.1.0, however I managed to mount the LUKS-drive with the newer kernels with setting another (shorter) passphrase on the older kernel, which was working with the encrypted drive. I will mark this issue as solved.
Is there a bug in setting a (too) long passphrase for LUKS-encrypted drives without getting a warning? There should (in theory) not be a limit according to https://askubuntu.com/questions/487613/luks-hdd-encryption-maximum-maximum-password-length
