Thank you, @jock. Sorry, it was not clear to me that your images are deprecated.
I reimaged my box with latest bookworm image from the github comunity releases page and it seems to run stable now. It took me some time to realize that neither nightly bookworm nor archived jammy image initialized HDMI output, so I had to access the box over LAN to configure it. WiFi didn't work out of the box too, I had to overwrite the settings file.
In the meantime I replaced white sticky tape under the heatsink with thermal grease. Now CPU runs at much lower temperatures, was 65° idle, now 45° idle and 58° under load with no extra cooling.