I tried this image and not really anything changed except now screen resolution is 1024x768@60p. I read through the logs and it seems that the board fails to auto-detect parameters of a monitor attached.
Logs: http://ix.io/1NN5
I guess at this point it's not a software problem, but I'm curious what could be the reason after all, considering that the board used to boot just fine.
I have a bold assumption that it could be related that few days ago there was a power failure with short period of over-voltage at the building I work in so it may be the reason (or may not, I don't really know).
Anyway thanks a lot for your help!