I have exactly the same issue. Cannot boot after upgrade, also newly flashed image won't boot with exactly the same trace.
I compiled latest upstream U-Boot v2025.04 as described here (Pre-Built FIP variant).
https://docs.u-boot.org/en/latest/board/amlogic/odroid-c2.html
Then I patched Armbian image with latest U-Boot.
dd if=u-boot.bin.sd.bin of=Armbian_25.2.1_Odroidc2_bookworm_current_6.12.13_minimal.img conv=notrunc bs=512 skip=1 seek=1
And that works for me, system boots just fine